Avion WC Klippel

What it means: Radium-226 and Radium-228 are naturally occurring radioactive isotopes produced by the decay of uranium and thorium in bedrock. They dissolve into groundwater, particularly in deep aquifers with low oxygen and low pH. Granite bedrock and some deep sandstone and limestone aquifers present conditions where combined radium can reach detectable levels in drinking water.

Health effects: Radium is a bone-seeking radionuclide that accumulates in skeletal tissue after ingestion. Long-term exposure increases the risk of bone cancer and leukemia. There is no safe threshold for ionizing radiation — the MCL is set at a level balancing risk reduction with treatment feasibility. Children are particularly vulnerable due to higher rates of bone growth and calcium uptake.

Limit: 5 pCi/L (combined Ra-226 and Ra-228)

What it means: Gross alpha particle activity is a screening measurement of all alpha-emitting radionuclides in water, excluding radon and uranium (which are regulated separately). If gross alpha exceeds 5 pCi/L, further analysis is required to identify specific radionuclides. Elevated gross alpha typically indicates water drawn from deep aquifers in contact with uranium- or thorium-bearing bedrock.

Health effects: Alpha-emitting radionuclides accumulate in bone and soft tissue, delivering sustained internal radiation doses that increase lifetime cancer risk. There is no established safe threshold for ionizing radiation. Individual contributors such as radium-226 and polonium-210 have their own MCLs; gross alpha serves as a cost-effective screening tool that triggers more specific radionuclide analysis when exceeded.

Limit: 15 pCi/L (excluding radon and uranium)